ADOLESCENCE Adolescent sexual behavior,

Adolescent sexual behavior,

Sexual literacy and sex education;
·      Adolescent can get information about sex from many sources; parents, sibling, schools, peers, magazines, television, and the internet.
·      A special concern is the accuracy of sexual information.
·      Many parents feel uncomfortable talking abour sex.
·      Many adolescents feel uncomfortable talking about sex.
·      Contraceptive use by female adolescents also increases when adolescents report that they can communicate about sex with their parents.
·      Adolescent are more likely to have conversation about sex with their mothers than their father.

Developing sexual identity;
·      Learning to menage sexual feelings, such as sexual arousal and attraction.
·      Developing new forms of intimacy, learning the skills to regulate sexual behavior.
·      Sexual identity involves an indication of sexual orientation.
·      Sexual identity is strongly influenced by social norms related to sex.

Sexual scripts;
·      Sexual script; A stereotyped pattern of role perceptions for how individuals should sexually behave.
·      Females and males have been socialized to follow different sexual scripts.
·      Adolescent girls are more likely than males to report being in love as the main reason they are sexually active.
·      Males making sexual advances, and it is up to the female to set the limits.

Risk factors in adolescent sexuality;
·      Many adolescent are not emotionally prepared to handle sexual experiences, especially in early adolescence.
·      Early sexual activity is linked with risky behaviors, such as drug use and school-related problems.
·      Early menarche and poor parent-child communcation were linked to early sexual behaviors in girls.
·      Parent-adolescent communication about sexuality.
·      Family closeness and support.
·      Sexual-risk taking behavior was more likely to ocur in girls living in single-parent homes.
·      Weak self-regulation and risk proneness set the stage for sexual risk taking at 16 to 17 years of age.

Factors associated with sexual minority behavior;
·      Biological basis, hormone; Early critical period hypothesis
·      In the 2nd to 5th month after conception, exposure of the fetüs to hormone levels characteristics of females might cause the individual to become attracted to males.
·      If critical period hypothesis is correct, it supports why modifying sexual orientation is difficult.
·      Developmental pathways, most gays and lesbians struggle with same-sex attractions in childhood.
·      Many youth do follow this developmental pathway, but others do not.
·      Many youth have no recollection of same-sex attraction in childhood and experience a sudden sense of their same-sex attraction in late adolescence.
·      Freud, no factor alone causes sexual orientation. Combination of genetic, hormonal, cognitive, environmetal.

Adolescent pregnancy;
·      More than 200.000 females in the United States have a child before their eighteenth birthday.
·      The United States continued to have one of the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy.
·      Factors in teenage pregnancy, onset age of sexual activity, poverty and family influence, less school success, less contraception use.
·      Consequence of adolescent pregnancy, creates health risk for both baby and the mother. Infants are more likely to have low birth weights, a prominent factor in infant mortality-as well as neurological problems adn childhood illness. Adolescent mothers often drop out of school. It often is not pregnancy alone that leads to negative consequences for an adolescent mother and her offspring.
·      Adolescent as parents, children of adolescent parents face problem seven before they are born. Aolescent mothers are less competent at child rearing. Adolescent mothers have less realistic expectations for their infants’ development than do older mothers.
·      Adolescent as parents, although some adolescent fathers are involved with their children, the majority are not. Adolescent fathers have lower incomes, less education and more children than do men who delay having children until their twenties.

ADOLESCENCE Self and Identity,

Self and Identity
 
The self;
·      The self consist of all the characteristics of a person.
·      Self is the central aspects of the individual’s personality.
·      İntegrative dimension to our understanging of different personality characteristics.
·      Several aspects of the self, self-esteem and self-concept.

Who are self-esteem and self-concept;
·      Self esteem, also referred to as self-worth or self-image, it is the global evaluate dimensions of the self. For example, an adolescent or emerging adult might perceive that she is not merely a person, but a good person.
·      Self-concept, refers to domain-specific evaluations of the self. For example, an adolescent may have a negative academic self-concept because he is not doing well at school, but have a positive athletic self-concept because he is a star swimmer.

Measuring self-esteem and self-concept;
·      Susan Harter developed a measure for adolescents, the self-perception profile for adolescent. It assesses eight domains. Scholastic competence, athletic competence, social acceptance, physical appearance, behavioral conduct, close friendship, romantic appeal and job competence, plus global self-worth.

Self-esteem: perception and reality;
·      Self-esteem may reflect perceptions that do not always match reality. Bolstered self-esteem, narcissism/unwarranted sense of superiority over the others, self-centered and self-concerned approach. Insecurity-inferiority, inaccurate perception of one’s own shortcomings.

Self-esteem change during adolescence;
·      Self-esteem fluctuates across the life span.
·      During and just after many life transitions.
·      According to a longitudinal study, self-esteem decreased during adolescence. Increased in the twenties, leveled off in the thirties, rose in the forties through the mind-sixties. At most ages, males reported higher self-esteem than females, especially during adolescence.

Social context and self-esteem;
·      Social context such as the family, peers, and schools contribute to the development of an adolescent’s self esteem. Authoritative parenting.
·      Peer judgement gain increasing importance in adolescence. The link between peer approval and self-worth increase during adolescence.

Consequences low self-esteem;
·      For most adolescents, the emotional discomfort of low self-esteem is temporary.
·      Low self-esteem has been implicated in depression, suicide, anorexia nervosa, deliquency, and other adjustment problems, and even suicide.
·      Increasing adolescent’s self-esteem, self-esteem often increases when adolescents face a problem and try to cope with it rather than avoid it.
·      Facing problems realistically, honesty, and non-defensively produces favorable self-evaluative thoughts, which lead to the self-generated approval that raises self-esteem.

Identity;
·      Identity is who a person is.
·      Most comprehensive theory of identity development is that of Erik Erikson.
·      Erikson’s ideas on identity, who i am?, what am i all about?, what am i going to do with my life?, what is different about me?, how can i make it on my own?.
·      These questions not usually considered in childhood, surface as a common, virtually universal concern during adolescence.
·      Revisiting Erikson’s views on identity, identity versus identity confusion, adolescents are faced with who they are, what they are all about, and where they are going in life.

Erikson’s views on identity;
·      As a part of their identity exploration adolescents experience.
·      Psychosocial moratorium: The gap between childhood security and adult autonomy. Personality and role experimentation. A deliberate effort on the part of adolescent to find their place in the world.
·      During the moratorium and before they reach a stable sense of self, adolescents try out different roles and personalities.
·      They might be argumentative one moment, cooperative the next.
·      They might dress neatly one day and sloppily the next day.
·      There are many roles for adolescents to try out.
·      İdentitity is composed of many pieces: Vocational/career identity, political identity, religious identity, relationship idetity, achievement, intellectual identity, sexual identity, cultural/ethnic identity, interest, personality characteristics.

The four statuses of identity;
·      James marcia claims that Erikson’s  theory of identity development implies four ways of resolving the identity crisis.
·      A period of identity development during which the adolescent is choosing among alternatives, a state of exploration.
·      Identity diffusion: Identity crisis is not yet experienced, undecided about occupational and ideological choices, Show little interest in such matters.
·      Identity foreclosure: Commitment is made to occupational and idealogical positions, but the adolescent has not experienced an identity crisis. This status ocur when parents hand down commitments to their adolescents, usually in an authoritarian way. They take over patterns of identity from their parents. For example, parents want him/her to be a doctor, but the adolescent has not explored any other options.
·      Identity moratorium: Identity crisis, and not commitment is made to a certaing identity. Not being sure about what life path to follow.
·      Identity achievement: Adolescent has been through an identity crisis and made a commitment. Different career options are explored and acted upon them.
·      Marcia’s approach has been criticized by some researchers that is distorts and oversimplifies Erikson’s concept of crisis.
·      Recent theorizing suggests that effective identity development involves evaluating identity commitments on a continuing basis.
·      Gathering information and talking to others about current choices

Developmental changes in identity;
·      Many of the key changes in identity are most likely to take place in emerging adulthood, from 18 to 25 years of age.
·      Many young adolescents are identity diffused by the time they reach their twenties.
·      In the last few years of college identity achievement increases.
·      Although identity is more stable during adulthood does not mean that identity will be stable throughout life.
·      The process of refining and enhancing the identity choices continues into early and middle adulthood.

Family influences on identity;
·      Parents are influential figures in an adolescent’s search for identity. Family environment  that promotes both individuality and connectedness is important in identity development.
·      Individuality, self-assertion- to have and communicate a point of view. Separeteness- expressing how one is different from others.
·      Connectedness, mutuality – sensitivity to and respect for others’ views. Permeability – opennes to others’ views.
·      Attachment to parents might play a role in identity development.
·      Securely attached adolescents are more likely to be identity achieved than their counterparts who are identity diffused or identity foreclosed.

ADOLESCENCE Conception of adolescence,

Conception of adolescence,
 
Histotrical precursors;
·      ‘to grow up’
·      The Greek Philosopher Aristotle, passionate, carried away by their impulses.
·      The first great theories of adolescence starts with Jean-Jacques Rousseau.
·      Rousseau suggested 3 features of adolescence that continue to play a prominent role in current discussions of this period, adolescence is a period heightened instability and emotional conflict that is brought on by biological maturation, biological and social changes are accompanied by a fundamental change in psychological processes, adolescence recapitulates, that is, repeats in condensed form-the earlier stages of lifee through which the child has passed.
·      When developmental psychologist began to turn their attention to adolescence at the end of the 19th century, many picked up and modified Rousseau’ ideas.
·      Among all was G.Stanley Hall, the first president of APA, Heightened emotionality and stress, deep depressions, rebirth after childhood, adolescence is more flexible than any other period of development.
 
Modern biosocial approaches to adolescence;
·      Hall’s description of adolescence as a period of storm and stress, as reflected in adolescents’ conflicts with their parents, their wildy flunctuating moods, and their risky behavior, is widely accepted.
·      However, continuing dispute  over the dgree to which adolescence is characterized by stress and conflict, there is no unified theory of adolescence!
·      Arnold Gesell, higher human traits, such as abstract thinking, imagination, and self-control make their appereance late in the development of the individual because they were acquired late in the history of the species, environment nay exert a more powerful influence during adolescence.
·      Sigmund Freud, a distinctive stage of development adolescence is the genital stage, because this is the period during which sexual intercourse becomes a major motive of behavior, emotional strominess associated with adolescence results from a psychological struggle.
·      Sigmund Freud, struggle among the 3 parts of the personality, id, ego, superego, sexual excitation that accompanies puberty reawakens primitive instincts, increases the power of the id, and upsets the psychological balance achieved during middle childhood.
·      Sigmund Freud, this ambalance produces psychological conflict, the main development task of adolescence is therefore to reestablish the balance of psychological forces by reintegrating them in a new and more mature.
·      Sigmund Freud, was alos influenced by the idea of recapitulation, he argued, when sexual maturation reawakens the oedipal urges that were repressed at the start of the middle childhood, the young person must rework this conflict under the new conditions of social life that attend sexual maturity.
 
Physical development (brain );
·      13-15 years, largely related tp parts of brain that control spatial perceptions and motor functions.
·      15+ years, changes in prefrontal cortex responsible for executive processing.
·      Reasearch has found that the limbic system, an emotional and impulsive part of the brain, develops prior to the prefrontal cortex, the rational, logical part of the brain
·      Tis in part explains some of the impulsive, emotional reactions of teens.
 
Physical development ( muscular system );
·      Muscle fibers become thicker and denser.
·      By age 17, boys can be as much as 3 times stronger than girls.
·      Men – 40% of total body mass is muscle.
·      Women – 24% of total mass is muscle.
·      Largely a result of hormonal differences.
 
Puberty;
·      The series of biological developments that transforms individuals from a state of physical immaturity to one which they are biologically mature and capable of sexual reproduction.
·      Changes needed for reproductive maturity.
·      The sequence of physical change is universal, but the timing varies.
·      Age of onset ranges between 8-15 years.
·      Puberty begins with a chemical signla from hypothalamus, they activates the pituitary gland.
·      Pituitary increases production of growth hormones, which in turn stimulate the growth of all body tissue.
·      Pituitary also releases hormones related to two gonadotrophic hormones.
·      Gonads: primary sex organs, the ovaries in females, testes in males.
·      In females, gonadotrophic hormones stimulate the ovaries to manufacture estrogen.
·      In males, gonadotrophic hormones stimulate the testes and adrenal glands to manufacture the hormone testosterone, which brings the manufacture of sperm.
·      Estrogen and testosterone are present in both sexes.
·      During puberty, both sexes experience an increase in hormones.
 
The growth spurt;
·      The first visible signs of puberty is a spurt in the rate of physical growth.
·      Although growth continues throughout puberty, adolescents reach 98 percent of their adult height.
·      The rate of growth during adolescence varies for different parts of the body.
·      As a rule, leg length reaches its peak first.
·      Males and females acquire distinctive features that characterize the two sexes.
 
Physical changes;
·      Primary sex characteristics, the parts of the body directly involved in reproduction, growth of testes and penis, growth of ovaries, uterus, and vagina.
·      Secondary sex characteristics, not necessary for reproduction, anotomical signs distinguishing males and females, breast development, changing voice pitch, beard growth, body hair.
 
Sexual development in girls;
·      Menarche, first menstruation.
·      Occurs 2 years after beginning of other visible signs, avarage age – between 12 and 13, irregular menstrual cycles first few years.
·      Ovum may not be produced during every cycle.
·      Secular trend, lower,ng of the age of menarche by 4 months per decade, due mainly to changes in diet and lifestyle.
·      Pregnancy can ocur after menarche.
·      Sperm production begins between 12 and 14
·      First ejaculation about age 13 or 14.
·      Genital development and pubic hair development precedes the end of the growth spurt.
·      Development of beard and voices changes ocur near the end of the sequence.
 
Consequences of early and late maturation;
·      Early or late maturation might have an effect on young people’s peer relations, personality and social adjustment.
·      In general, studies Show that early maturing boys seem to have a more favorable attitude toward their bodies, largely because their greater size and strength maket hem more capable athletes which brings social recognition.
·      However, not all the effects of early maturation are positive for boys.
·      Adolescents boys who reach pubety at a relatively early age also more likely to smoke, drink and use drugs.
·      The Picture also complicated for girls. But overall effects are generally negative for girls.
·      Girls who develop before their pees might be embarrassed about the change in their body.
·      Later on, are also more likely to be dissatisfied with their bodies.
·      This is because, early maturing adolescents tend to weigh more and to be slightly shorter than the maturing children when they finish puberty.
·      For some girls, early maturation brings greater social prestige based on sexual attractiveness.
·      This increased sociaal prestige may carry potential risks.
·      Late maturation may also be difficcult, especially for boys in a school in which athletics is valued.
·      Late maturing girls may feel anxiety about when puberty will hit.
·      The effects of early or later onset of puberty are mediated by the social context in which maturation takes place and by the ways others respond to the physical changes young people are experiencing.